A Brief Introduction to Geography

CHAP. 1.

T Opographie is a particular description of some small quantity of Land, such as Land measurers set out in their plots.

Chorographie is a particular description of some Country, as of England, France, or any shire or province in them: as in the Vsuall and ordinary map.

Geography is an art of science teaching us the general description of the whole earth, of this especially we are now to speak of, and also Chorography as a part under it contained: both, excellent parts of knowledge in them selves, and affording much profit and help in the understanding of history & other things. The parts of Geography are two.

• General, which treateth of the nature, qualities, measure, with other general properties of the earth.
• Special, wherein the several countries and coasts of the earth are divided and described.

Of the general in the first place, and more at large then of the other, because it is more difficult, and hard to be understood, and yet of necessary use, for the understanding of the other. This general tract may be parted into five particular heads.

• 1 of the properties and affections of the earth.
• 2 of the parts of it in general.
• 3 of the Circles of it.
• 4 of the distinction and division of it according to some general conditions and qualities of it.
• 5 of the measuringe of it.

These in their order.

CAP. 2.

IN Geography when we name the earth we mean not the earth taken severally by it self, without the seas and waters. But under one name both are comprised, as they are now mingled one with another and do both together make up one entire and round body. Neither do we dive into the bowels of the earth, and ente • into consideration of the natural qualities, which are in the substance of Earth and water, as coldness, dryness moisture, heaviness, and the like, but we look only upon the outside, contemplating the greatness, situation, distances, measuringe, and other such affections which appear in the superficies of it, to the eyes of our bodies and minds: These then of the earth and water together, rules are to be known,

CAP. 3.

THe properties of the earthly Globe have been handled in the former chapter we come now to the parts, which are two in general.

• Earth
• Water

Both contain under them more particular parts to be known.

The more notable parts of the Earth are these.

• 1 A Continent or main Land, or as some call it firm Land, which is not parted by the Sea running between.
• 2 An Island, a land compassed about with waters.
• 3 A Peninsula, a land almost surrounded by waters save at one place, where it joins by anarrow neck of land to the Continent; this is also called Chersonesus.
• 4 An Isthmus, a straight neck of land which joins two countries together, and keeps the Sea from compassing the one.
• 5 A Promontorie or head land running far out into the Sea like a wedge.
• All easy to be known without any definition.
  • 6 A Mountain
  • 7 A Valley
  • 8 A Champion plain
  • 9 A Wood

The more notable parts of the Water are these

• 1 Mare the Sea, or Ocean, which is the gathering together of all waters.
• 2. Fretum a straight or narrow sea running between two lands.
• 3 S • nu • a Creeke, Gulf, or Bay, when the sea runs up into the bosom of the land by a narrow entrance but openeth it broader when it is within; if it be very litell it is called a Haven, Portus.
• 4 Lacus a Lake, a little sea with in the land having rivers running into it, or out of it, or both. If it hath neither it is calldd Staguum a standing Poole, also Palus; a senne.
• 5 Fluvius a River, which from the pleasantness is also called Amnis; from the smallness of it Rivus.

Now concerning these parts diverse questions are moved; whether there be more Sea or Land? whether the sea would naturally ouerslow the land, as it did in the first creation, were it not withheld within his banks by divine power? whether the deepenes of the Sea, doth exceed the height of the mountains? whether mountains were before the flood? what is the hight of the highest hills? whether Islands came since the stood? what is the cause of the Ebbing and flowing of the Sea? what is the original of springs and rivers? what manner of motion the running of the rivers is? with such like, whe • rof some belong not so properly to this science of Geography as to oath • s. We speak only a word or two of the last, & soproceed. The question is whether the motion of the rivers be straight, or Circular. The doubts on both sides will best appear by a sigure first drawn: wherein, Let (HMO) be the Meridian of Alexandria in Egypt, or of the Mouth of Nile and answerable to the meridian of the Heavens. Another in the Earth (XBY.) Let (B) be the mouth of Nile, and (C) the fountain and head of it. Now the mouth of Nile, where it runs into the mediterranian Sea, is placed by geographers in the 31, degree of the North latitud; & the head of Nile where it riseth is placed by Polomaeus in 11. degree of the South latitud, but by latter & more exact geographers in the 14. degree of the Southern latitud, so that the distance between the founts & Ostia, i. e. between (C) and (B) is 45. degrees of a great Circle, which after the vsua • l account makes 2700. one eight part of the earths compass, The question now is, whether the runninge from (C) to (B) run continually downward in a straight line; or circularly in a crooked line. If it run in a straight line, as is most agreeable to the nature of the water it must move either by the line (CEB) or by the line (DB.) By the line (CEB) it cannot move: for when it is come to (E,) it will stand still. Because from (E) to (B) it must move upward, if it move at all, which is contrary to the nature of water. If therefore it move by a straight line it can be no other, but (BD,) and so from (D) to (B) it shall continually descend; for of all places between (D,) & (B) (B) is the nearest to (A.) But then the fountain must not be in (B) but higher in (D) which • emees altogether improbable or impossible. For first the line (AD) would be notably and sense • bly longer then the line (AB.) For the compass of the earth being about 24000. Miles, and the semidiameter (AB,) or (AC) 3828. miles the line, (CD,) would be 1581. miles, which cannot be true, if as we have proved before, the earth be round land that the highest hills make no sensible inaequality. A gain they that dwell in (D) should see the North Pole star (N) as well as they that dwell in (B,) which also is false. So then the river cannot run either by (EB) or (DB); Runnes it then circularly by the line (CW • ?) This seems probable, and the rather because hereby a reason of the original of Rivers might more easily be given: For the fountains (C) lying • uen with the superficies of the Sea, the water may easily •• sse through the hollowes of the earth, and break out at (C) without ascendinge. But here also are some difficulties: for first we find by experience that the fountains of most rivers, and those great ons too, lie sensibly higher then the plain surface of the Sea. Again, if the river move directly cound, what should be the cause that begins and continues this motion? It is a motion besides the nature of the water, and therefore violent, what should drive it forward from the Sea to (C,) and from (C) to (B?) when the water is at (C,) or (W,) it is as necre to the Center (A) as when it is at (B,) and therefore it should seem with more liklyhood it would stand still; for why should it strive to go further, seeing where it is, it is as near to the Center as whither it runs. Or if some violence do drive it from (C,) towards (W,) yet (as it is the nature of violent motions) the further it goes the slower it will run, till in the end it stand still, if there be no aduantadge of ground to help it forward.

As a bowle thrown down a hill runs easily and far, if it once be set a going: but thrown upon the ice (an even place) it will without any lett at last stand still. Answer may be made hereunto, that although there be no advantage of the ground, yet the water will still move forward from (C) to (B) because the water that follows, pusheth forward that, that runs afore. which answer will stand, when a good cause may be shown, which forcibly driveth the water from the Sea unto (C) and out of the fountain (C;) considering that (after this supposition) they lie both in the same circular superficies. Wherefore seeing, we cannot without any inconueniency suppose it to move by any of these lines either straight as (BC) or (BD,) or circular as (BWC) let us inquire farther.

The most likely opinion is, that the motion of the water is mixed neither directly straight, or circular, but partly one, partly the other. Or if it be circular, it is in a circle whose center is a little distant from the Center of the whole globe. Let us place fountains then neither in (C) nor (D) but in (F) I say the water runs either partly s 〈…〉 eight by the (F S) and partly circular, from (S) to (B) which motion will not be incon 〈…〉 meant, for the water descending continually from (F) to (S) will cause it still to turn forward; or else wholly circular in the circle (F X B.) And this is most a greeable to truth. For so it shall both run round as it m • st do if we will escape the otherwise unavoidable inconveniences of the first opinion and yet in running still descend, and come nearer to the Center, as is most be fitting the nature of water, so that we need not seek for any violent cause that moves it. Let us then see what is the hight of (F) the fountains of Nile, above (C) that is (B) the mouth or outlet of it into

the Sea. The usual allowance in watercourses is one foo • • n descent for 200. foot in running, but if this be thought to much because water will run away upon any inequality of ground, for every 500. foot allow one for descent, & so much we may with reason, in regard of the swiftness of many rivers, yea the most, which in many places runs he a • long, in all places very swiftly (especially Nile whose cateracts or downfalls are notable) which cannot be without some notable dec •• uity of the ground. Thus then the whole course of Nile being 2700. miles from (F) to (B) the perpendicular or plumb descent of it (C F) will be 5. miles. And so high shall the fountain stand above the mouth, and the surface of the plain Land (for rivers commonly arise at foot of hills) which is (B X F) swell up above the surface of the Sea (B W C) or (B Y) which hight of the Land above the Sea althought it be greater then is the height of the highest mountains above the plain Land, yet it is nothing in comparison of the whole Earth. And this being granted (as with most probability of reason it may) it will appear that God in the beginning of the world imposed • oe perpetual violence upon nature, in gathering together, the waters into one place, and being so gathered in keeping them from running back to cover the earth. At the first so soon as those hollow channells were prepared, the water did naturally slide down into them, and out of them without miraculous power they cannot return. For if the sea (B Y) should overflow the land towards (F) the water must ascend in running from (B) to (F) which is contrary to its nature. Certainly the midland countries, whence springs of great rivers usually arise, do lie so h • gh, that the sea cannot naturally overflow them. For as for that opinion that the water of the sea in the middle lies on a heap higher then the water that is by the shore; and so that it is a harder matter to sails out of a Haven to seaward, then to come in) because they go upward): this is an empty speculation contrary to experience, and the grounds of nature it se • fe, as might easily be shown. All the difficulty that is in this opinion, is to give a reason how the waters mount up to (F,) and whence the water comes that should flow out of so high a place of the earth, wherein I think as in many other secrets of nature we must content our selves with ignorance, seeing so many vain conjectures have taken no better success.

CAP. 4.

IN a round body as the earth is, there can be no distinction of parts, & places, without the help of some lines drawn or imagined to be drawn upon it. Now though there are not, no • can be any circles truly drawn upon the earth, yet because there is a good ground in nature and reason of things for them, we must imagine them to be drawn upon the earth, as truly as we see them described upon a Globe or in a plain paper. Further this must be noted, that all circles on the earth have the like opposite unto them conc • aved to be the Heavenes, under which they are directly situated. Thus known, the circles that we are to take the special notice of are of two sorts,

• Greater and
• Lesser.

The greater circles are those which devide this earthly globe into equal halfs or Haemispheres.

The lesser are those which devide it into two unequal parts, one bigger, another less.

Of the former sort there are four, the

• 1 Equator.
• 2 Meridian.
• 3 Horizon.
• 4 Zodiac, or Eclipticke.

1 The Aequitor or Aequonoctiall li • e, is a li • e dra ••• just in the midst of the earth, from East to West, which compasseth it as a girdle doth a man's body, and devideth it into two equal parts, one 〈◊〉 the North side, the other on the South The two points in the earth that are every way fa • hest distant from it North, & South are called the Poles of the earth which do directly stand under the two like points in the Heaven, so called because the Heaven turns about upon them, as the Earth doth in a Globe that's set in a frame. This circle is of the first & principal note and use in Geography, because all measurings for distances of places and quarters of the Earth are reckoned in it, or from it. It is called the Aequinoctiall, because when the Sun in the Heavens co 〈…〉 es to be directly over that circle in the earth, the days & nights are of equal length in all parts of the world. Mariners call it by a kind of excellency, The line. Upon the Globe it is easily discerned being drawn bigger then any other circles from East to West, and with small divisions.

2 The Meridian, is a line that is drawn quite cross the Aequinoctiall, and passeth through the Poles of the Earth, going directly North and South. It is called the Meridian, because when the Sun stands just over that circle it is Meridies i. d. noon day. It may be conceived thus, at noon day, when it is just twelve a clock, turn your face towards the South, and then imagine with yourself two circles drawn, one in the Heavens, passing from the North just over your head through the body of the Sun down to the South, and so round under the earth up again to the North Pole. Another upon the surface of the earth passing through your feet just under the Sun, and so compassing the earth round till it meet at your feet again, and these are Meridians answering one to another. Now the Meridian is not one only, as was the Aequinoctiall, but many still varying according to the place wherein you are, as for example. At London there is one Meridian, at Oxford another, at Bristow another, & so along Eastward or Westward. For it is noon at London sooner then at Oxford, and at Oxford sooner then at Bristow. Upon the globe there are many drawn, all which pass through the poles, and go North and South, but there is one more remarkable then the rest, drawn broad with small divisions, which runneth through the Canary Islands, or through the Islands of Azores Westward of Spain, which is counted the first Meridian in regard of reckoning and measuring of distances of places O •• from another; for otherwise there is neither first nor last in the round earth. But some place must be appointed where to begin the account: and those Islands have been thought fittest, because no part of the World that lay westward was known to the Ancients further then that: and as they began to reckon there, we follow them. This circle is called in Greek 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉 .

3 The Horizon is twofold

• Sensible or appearing.
• Intelligible or true.

The Sensible or appearing Horizon is the space of the earth so far as in an ope • plain, or upon some Hill a man may see round about him. The brim or edge of the earth further then which you cannot see, that is the Horizon, or as some call it the Finitor. Because finet or terminat visum, it sets the limits or bounds to your sight, beyond which nothing can be seen upon the earth. This is greater or lesser, according as the height of the eye above the plain superficies of the earth, is more or less. The most exact trial hereof is at Sea, where there are no mountains nor any unequal risings of the water to hinder the sight, as there are at land. For example let (⌒ B A F) be the superficies of the Sea and let a man's eye be placed in (X) above the Sea; as the eye stands higher or lower so will the distance seen be more or less, as if the hight of (X A) be 6 foot which is ordinary the height of a man, the eye looking from (X) to (B) shall see 2 miles and 3 quarters, if (X) be 20 foot high (B A) will be five miles, if 40 foot 7 miles, if 50 foot 8 miles. So that from the mast of a ship 50 foot high, a man may see round about at sea 8 miles every way, toward (B G) and (F), So far may the water it self be seen, but any high thing on the water may be seen farther, 16, or 20 miles according as the height is as the ship at (C) may be seen from (X) as far more as it is from (A) to (B). There can be therefore no certain quantity and space set down for this sensible Horizon, which continually varies according to the height of the eye above the plain ground or sea. This Horrizon is not at all painted on the globe nor can be.

The intelligible or true Horizon is a line which girts the earth round in the midst, and divides it into two equal parts or Hemispheares the uppermost upon the the top & middle point Whereof we dwell, and that which is under us. Opposite to this in the Heavens is another Horizon, which likewise cuts the Heaven into two Hemispheres, the upper and the lower. Above which circle when any star or the Sun is moved, it then riseth unto us, and setteth unto those that dwell opposite unto us, and so on the contrary, you may conceive it best thus, if standing upon a hill, or some open place, where you may perfectly see the setting of the Sun, you mark when the Sun is half gone out of your sight, you may perceive the body of the S • nne cut in two, as it were by a line, going along through it, the half above is yet seen, that underneath is gone out of your sight. This line is but a p • ece of the Horrizon, which if you conceive to be drawn upward about the World from the West to the North, and so by East and South, to West again you have the whole Horrizon described.

This circle is not drawn upon the body of the globe, because it is variable; but stands one the outside of it, being a broad circle of wood covered with paper on which are set the months and days of the year both in the old and new Calender, and also the 12 signs, and the points of the compass. All which are easily discerned by the beholdinge. The use of this Horizon is not so much in Geography as in Astronomy.

The Zodiake is a circle which compasseth the earth like a •• lt, crossing the • quator slopewise, no • straight as the Meridians do. Opposite to it in the Heavens is another circle of the same name, wherein are the 12. signs, and in which the Sun keeps his own proper course all the year long, never d •• lining from • t on the one side or other. The use hereof in Geography is but little only to show what people they are over whose heads the Sun comes to be once or twice a year; who are all those that dwell with in 23. degrees of the Equator; for so much is the declination, or sloping of the Zodiac. This circle is also called the Eclipticke line, because when the Sun and Moon stand both in this circle opposite each to other, then there happens an Eclipse of the Sun or Mone, upon a globe it is easily discerned, by the sloping of it from the Equator, and the divisions of it into 12. parts, and every of those 12. into 30. degrees.

These are the greater circles: the lesser follow; which are all of one nature, and are called by one general name: sc. Parallels, because they are so drawn on each side of the Equator, as they are • quidistant unto it every way. Many of this kind are drawn upon the globe (as is easy to • e • seen) and may be conceived to be drawn upon the earth: but there are only two sorts chiefly to be marked: namely the

• Tropickes and the
• Polar circles.

The tropickes are two, parallel circles distant on each side of the Equator 23. degrees showing the farthest bounds of the Sunns declination North or South from the Equator, or the midst of heaven. And therefore they are called tropickes a 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉 • ertendo, because when the Sun comes over these lines, he either turns away from us, as in the Summer, or turns toward us again as in the winter: There are then two of them vid.

• 1 The Tropicke of Cancer which lies on the North side of the Equator, to which when the Sun comes, it makes the longest day in Summer.
• 2 The Tropicke of Capricorne, lying Southward of the Equator, to which when the Sun comes, it makes the shortest day in winter.

The Polar circles are two parallels drawn by the poles of the Zodiac compassinge about the poles of the world, being distant from them every way 23 degrees. These are two.

1 The Articke Circle that compasseth about the North Pole: it is so called because that in the Heavens (where unto this in the earth lies opposite) runs through the constellation of the great Bear, which in Greek is called 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉

2 The Antarticke circle that compasseth about the South Pole, & is placed opposite unto the former. All these with the former are easily known vpō the Globe by these descriptions, & names usually added unto thē. But because maps are of an esier price, & more common use then Globes, it will be needful to show how all these circles, which are drawn most naturally upon a round Globe, may also as truly, and profitably for knowledge and use be described upon a plain paper. Whereby we shall understand the reason of those lines which we see in the usual Maps of the world, both how they are drawn, and wherefore they serve. Understand therefore, that in laying down the globe upon a plain paper, you must imagine the globe to be cut in two halfs through the midst, and so to be pressed down flat to the paper; as if you should take a hollow dish, and with your hand s • ui • ze the bottom down, till it lie • lat upon a bord or any other plain thing for then will those circles that before were of equal distance, run closer together towards the • i • st. After this conceit, universal Maps are made of two fashions, according as the globe may be divided two ways, either cutting quite through by the meridian from North to South, as if you should cut an apple by the eye and the stalk, or cutting it through the Aequinoctiall, East and West, as one would divide an apple through the midst, between the eye & the stalk. The former makes two faces, or hemispheares, the East and the West hemispheare. • he latter makes likewise two Hemisph • ares, the North and the South Both suppositions are good, and besitting the nature of the globe: for is touching such universal maps, wherein the world is repre •• nted not in two round faces, but all in one square plot, the ground whereupon such descriptions are founded, • s l 〈…〉 natural and agreeable to the globe for it supposeth the 〈◊〉 to be like a Cylinder (or role of bowling allies) which imagination, unless it be well qualified, is utterly false, and makes all such mappes faulty in the situation of places. Wherefore omitting this, we will show the description of the two former only, both which are easy to be done.

1 To describe an Aequinoctiall planispheare, draw a circle (A C B D) and in •••• be in • t two diameters (A B) & (C D) cutting each other at right angles, and the whole circle into some quadrants: each whereof devide into 90. parts, or degrees. The line (A B) doth • itly represent half of the Equator, as the line (C D) in which the points (C) & (D) are the two poles, half of the Meridian: for these circles the eye being in a perpendicular line from the point of concurrence (as in this projection it is supposed) must needs appear straight. To draw the other, which will appear crooked, do thus. Lie a rule from the Pole (C) to every tenth o • fifth degree of the half circle (A D B) noting in the Equator (A B) every intersection of it and the rule. The like do from the point (B) to the semicircle (C A D) noting also the intersections in the Meridian (C D) Then the diameters (C B) and (A B) being drawn out at both end •

as far as may suffice, finding in the line (D C) the center of the tenth division from (A) to (C) and from (B) to (C), & of the first point of intersection noted in the meridian frō the Equator towards (C) by away familiar to Geometricians: connect the three points, and you have the parallel of 10. degrees from the Equator: the like must be done in drawing the other paralells on either side, the Equator; as also in drawing the Meridians from centers found in the line (A B) in like manner continued. All which is illustrated by the following diagram.

2 To describe a Polar Planisphaere, draw a circle (A C-B D) on the center (ε) & as before, inscribe in it two diameters (A B) and (B C) cutting each other at right angles, and

the circle into four quadrants. Each quadrant being divided into 90. parts, draw from every 5 ^th or 10 ^th of those parts a diameter to the opposite point: these lines all concurring in the center (E) being the pole, are as so many Meridians. Next, having cut the half of any one of the former diameters into 9 parts, as (ε D) in the points (F G H I K L M N) draw on the center (E) so many circles and these represent the paralells of the Globe, being also here true paralells.

CAP. 5.

NExt after the Circles of the Earth, we may not unfitly handle the several Divisions and distinctions which geographers make of the parts, and inhabitants of the earth, These are many, but we will briefly run them over.

1 The first and most plain is by the Coasts of the Heavens, and rising, and Setting of the Sun, so it is distinguished into the

• East where the Sun ariseth. Oreins, Ortus 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉 .
• West where the Sun goeth down. occidens.
• North: between both fromwards the Sun at Noone. Septentrio.
• South: between both towards the Sun at Noone. Meridies.

These four are called the chief or Cardinal quarters of the world. They with the others between them are easily known but are of more use to Mariners then to us, We may rather take notice of those other names which by Astrono mers Geographers Divines and Poets are given unto them. Who sometime call the East the right hand part of the world, sometime the West, sometime the. North, & sometime South. the diversity is noted in these verses,

This serves for understanding of Authors, where in any mention is made of the right or left part of the World, if for example • e be a poet, he means the South by the right hand, the North by the left: because a poet turns his face to the West, and so reckons the quarters of Heaven and Earth.

2 The second distinction is by the notable differences of heat and cold, that are observed on the earth, this is the the division of the Earth by Zones or Cirdles, which are parts of the Earth, wherein heat and cold do remarkably increase or decrease. Those Zones are 5.

1 The hot or burning Zone (Zona torrida) which contains all that space of earth, that lieth between the two Torpicks, supposed heretofore (but falsely as after experience hath shown) to be inhabitable by reason of heat, the Sun continually lying over some part of it.

2. 3 The temperate Zones wherein neither heat nor cold is extreme but moderate: these are two, one on the North side of the Equator between the Articke circle, and the Torpicke of Cancer, another on the South side between the Torpicke of Capricorne, and the Antarcticke circle.

4. 5 The cold, or Frozen Zones, wherein cold for the most part is greater then the heat, these likewise are two, one in the North, between the Arcticke circle, and the North Pole, another on the South between the Antarctick circle and the South Pole. These of all parts of the earth are worst inhabited, according as extremity of cold is always a greater enemy to man's body, then extremity of heat.

3 The third distinction is by the shadows, which bodies do cast upon the earth, just at nooneday; for these do not always fall one way but diversely according to their divers situation upon the Earth. Now in respect of the shadows of men's bodies, the inhabitants of the earth are divided into the

1 Amphiscij ( 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉 ) whose shadow at noon day fall both ways, sc. to the North when the Sun is Southward of them, & to the South when the Sun is Northward, and such are those people that do dwell in the hot Zone. For the Sun goes over their heads twice a year, once Northward another time Southward, when the Sun is just over their heads they are called Ascij, 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉 , without shadow.

2 Heteroscij ( 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉 ) whose shadows do always fall one way, namely always towards the North, as those that dwell in the Northern temperate Zone, or always to the South, as those that dwell in the Southerne temperate Zone.

3 Periscij ( 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉 ) whose shadows go round about them, as those people who dwell in the two cold Zones, for as the Sun never goes down to them after he is once up, but always round about, so do their shadows.

4 The fourth distinction is by the situation of the Inhabitants of the Earth, compared on with another: who are called either.

• 1 Perioeci ( 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉 ) such as dwell round about the Earth in one and the same parallel, as for example under the Tropicke of Cancer.
• 2 Antoeci ( 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉 ) such as dwell opposite to the former in another Paralell of the same distance from the Equator. As those under the Tropicke of Capricorne.
• 3 Antipodes ( 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉 ) who dwell • ust under us their feet opposite to ours.

5 The fifth distinction is of the Length and Breadth of the Earth and places upon it: these may be considered two ways

• 1 Absolutely, and so the
  • Longitude or Length of the Earth is its Circuit, and Extension from East to west,
  • Latitude or breadth of it, is the whole Circuit and Compass of it from North to South:
• 2 Comparatiuely comparinge one places situation with another, and so the
  • Longitud of a place, is the distance of it from the first Meridian going through the Canary Islands, Eastward. Whereby we know how far one place lies East or West from another.
  • Latitude of a place, is the distance of it from the Equator towards the North or South. Whereby we know how far one Place lies Northward, or Southward of another.

The Longitude must be reckoned by the degrees of the Equator, the Latitude by the degrees of the Meridian.

For example, in these two Haemisphaeres, the longitude of the whole earth is from (C) to (A) and (B) in the Equator. The latitud is from (N) to (S), and from (Q) to (P) the North and South poles, and this reckoned in any meridian. The first meridian is (A N B S) which goes by the Canary Islands, the Aequinoctiall is (A B C A). Now I have a Citty given sc. (D) I would know in what longitude and latitude it is. For the longitude I consider what meridian passeth through it, which is the meridian (N D S) which crosseth the Aequinoctiall in (I) at 15 degrees, wherefore I say that (D) stands Eastward from the first Meridian 15 degrees. So I find that the Citty (ε) is 150 degrees Eastward, (G) 195, and (F) 345.

For the Latitude I consider what parallel runs through (D E G) or (F) and I find the 30 to pass by (D) 45 by (E) the 15 by (F) the 45 Southward by (G) and those numbers are the latitude of the place that are distant from the Equator, (C A B).

Concerning the means whereby the longitude of places is found out, there is scarce anything that hath troubled Mathematicians so much as the observation of it. For because no standing mark can be taken (the Heavens always running about) it must needs be difficult. To measure upon the earth, going always under the same parallel, is a way certain in regard of some few places, but so troublesome in it self,

and unprofitable in regard of other places that lie out of that parallel, that it may be accounted a fruitless labor. The voyages & accounts of Mariners at Sea, are so full of casualty & uncertainty by reason of the doubtful variation of the compass, the unequal violence of winds and tides, the false making of their sea cards, by which they fail, and the ignorance of the Masters for the greatest part, as there can hardly be any assured, reckoning made by them. The best means of observation is by Eclipses of the Sun & Moon, which in several Countries are sooner or later seen, according as one place lies farther East or farther West from another. But this also falls out so seldom, and when it happens, is • o seldom observed, and when it is observed, hath so many difficulties in the precise and exact observation of it; that we may Well account this inquiry after the longitude of places, to be one of those things whereof we must be content to be ignorant, & rather to guess at it in Grosse, then invaine to strive for exactness, which is the cause why the tables of the longitude and latitude of Cities, though they many times agree in the latitude, do yet for the most part very much differ in the Longitude.

6 The sixth Distinction is by the Length or shortness of the Day in Summer time in several Quarters of the earth. And this division is by Climates ( 〈 in non-Latin alphabet 〉 ) which are several spaces of the earth contained between two Paralells, in the which the longest day in Summer exc • edes that in another Paralell, by half an Houre. There is a great deal of Confusion and difference between the late and and ancient Geographers about the distinction and diverse reckonings of the Climats. It is not worth the labor to recount their opinions and Calculations: thus much is plain, and easy to be known. There are 24. Climats in which the Day increaseth by half hours, from 12. hours to 24. There are likewise 6. Climats in which the day increaseth by months, from one month to six, that is half a year. Under the Equator the day is always twelve hours longe, but as you go from it towards the Pole, the Day lengthen • still till it comes to a day half a year long. Now in what degrees of latitude every on of these Climats begin and end, shall appear by this table following.

7 The seventh and lost distinction of the earth is taken from the situation of it in respect of the Heavens, and especially the Suns motion. In regard whereof Some parts or inhabitants of the Earth are said to be or dwell in a Right Sphere, some in a parallel Sphere, and others in an oblique or crooked Sphere.

They dwell (in Sphaerarecta) in a right or straight Sphere who dwell just under the Aequinoctiall, whose Horizon is parallel to the Meridians, but cutts the Equator at right Angles. They dwell in parallel Spheres, who dwell just under either of the Poles, whose Horizon is parallel to the Equator, but cuts all the Meridians at right Angles: and the latter is sometime called a Paralell Sphere.

They dwell (in Sphaera obliqua) in a crooked Sphere, who inhabit any place between the Aequinoctiall and the Pole, whose Horizon cuts the Equator, the Paralells, and the Meridians at oblique or unequal angles.

1 The use of this table is easy. In the first Column are contained the names and number of the Climats. In the second the Paralells which enclose it on each side, and devide it in the midst. For the paralells here are drawn by eueryhalfe hours increase.

The third Column is the length of the Day in Summer, in every Climate, which from 12. hours increaseth by half hours to 24. hours after by months, from one month to six.

The fourth contains the degrees of latitude, how far every climate lies from the Aequinoctiall.

The fist contaynes the space or breadth of every Climate, how many degrees or minutes it takes up upon the Earth.

The sixth contains so • e notable places by which the Climats pass.

2 Hereby it is easy to know what the longest Day is in any Place of the world whose latitude is known. Or contrarily the longest Day being known to know the latitude For example Oxford hath latitude 52. 0. degrees longitude 24. 0. In the table I find that 52. degrees of Latitude lie in the 9 ^th Climate wherein the day is 16. hours and a half longe, so much I say the Day is at Oxford in Summer. The place of Oxford in the Haemisphaere is at (U.)

3 Upon Globes the Climats are not usually described, but are noted out upon the brazen Meridian. So also in universal mappes they are seldom drawn, to avoid confusion of many lines together but they are many times marked out on the limb or edge of the map,

CAP. 6.

WEE are now come to the last point concerning the measuring the Earth, which is twofold, either of the

• W ••• e earth.
• 2 Several parts thereof, and their distance one from another.

Concerning the first it is but a needless labor to recount the diversity of opinions that have been held from time to time by learned Geographers, What is the compass and depth of the earth. This may be seen in • ues de vsu Globe, part. 3. cap. 2. and in Clavi • s on Sacrobosco with others. They all differ so much one from another, that there is no certainty in trusting any of them. The most common and received opinion is that the circuit of the earth is 21600 miles, reckoning 〈◊〉 miles for every degree, and then the depth or Diameter of the Earth shall be 6877 English miles, containing 5000 foot in a mile.

Th • means whereby the circuit and Diameter of the earth are found out are Principally two.

1 By measuring North or South, • nder one Meridian some good quantity of ground, threescore or an hund •• d miles (or two for the more certainty) for in those petty observations of small distances, there can be no certain working. This may be done, though it be laborious, yet exactly without any sensible error by a skillful workman, plotting it out upon his paper, with due heed taken, that 〈◊〉 often rectify the variation of the needle (by which he travels) upon due observation, and that all notable ascents and descents, with such winding and turning as the necessity of the way causeth, be reduced to one straight line. By this means we shall know how many miles in the Earth answering to a degree in the Heavens; if exact observation by large instruments be made to find the elevation of the pole, in the first place where we begin to measure, and the last where we make an end.

Besides this way of measuring the circumference of the Earth, there is none other that hath any certainty of obseratiō in it. That by Eclipses is most uncertain; for a little error in a few minuts of time (which the observers shall not possibly avoid) breeds a sensible and fowl error in the distance of the two places of observation. That of Erat • sthenes by the Sun beams, and a shadow of a style or gnomon set upon the Earth, is as bad as the other. For both the uncertainty of the calculation in so small quantity as the shadow and the gnomon must needs have, and the difficulty to observe the true length of the shadow, as also the false supposition whereupon it proceeds, taking those lines for Parllells which are not, do manifestly show the reckoning hereby made to be doubtful and not sure.

2 The second is by measuring the semidiameter of the Earth: For as the circumference makes known the diameter, so doth this the circumference. This may be done by observe • tion made upon some great hill, hard by the sea side. The invention is of Maurolycus Abbot of Mess • va in Sicili • , but it hath been perfitted, and more exactly performed by a worthy Mathematician Ed. W. who himself made proof of it. By this art was the 〈…〉 idiameter of the Earth • ound ou • to be 1831262 • foot: which allowing 5000 foot to a mile is • 662 & a half miles, which doubled is the whole Diameter 7325 miles. The circuit of the earth shall be 2 • 030 miles, and one degree contains 63 61/36 miles, which is almost 64 miles. Which as it exceeds the ordinary account, so may we rest upon it as more exact then any other.

2 The second point concerning the measuringe of particular distances of places one from another is thus performed.

First upon the Globe it is most easy. With a pair of Compasses take the distance between any two places howsoever situated upon the Globe, and apply the distance so taken to the Equator, & see how many degrees it takes up; those degrees turned into miles show the distance of the two cities on from another.

Upon universal mapps their is a little more difficulty in finding the distance of places which here must be considered in a threefold difference of situation:

• 1 Of Latitude only.
• 2 Of Longitude only.
• 3 Of Latitude and Longitude together.

1 If the two places differ only in Latitude, and lie under the same Meridian if the places lie both on one side of the Equator, the differences of the latitudes: or the sum of both latitudes added together, if one place lie North and another South, being turned into Miles gives the true distance.

2 If the places differ only in Longitude, and lie both under one parallel of latitude the difference of longitude turned into miles proportionably according to the latitude of the parallel, gives the true distance.

3 The distance of places differing both in latitude and longitude may thus be found out first let there be drawn a semicircle upon a right diameter noted with (A B C D) whereof (D) shall be the Center. The greater this Semi-circle is made, so much the more easy will be the operation; because the degrees will be la 〈…〉 . Then this Semicircle being drawn, and accordingly divided, imagine that by the help of it, you desire to find out the distance betwixt London and Jerusalem, which Cities are known to differ both in longitude & latitude. Now, that the true distance betwixt th • se two places may be found out, you must first subtract the lesser longitude out of the greater, so shall you find the differences of their longitudes, which is 47. degrees. Then reckon that difference vpō the Semi-circle, beginning at (A) & so proceed to (B;) & at the end of that difference, make a mark with the leter (ε) unto which point by your ruler, let aright line be drawn from (D) the center of the Semi circle. This being in this sort performed, let the lesser latitude be sought out which in 32 degrees, in the fore said semicircle, beginning your accompt from the point (E) and so proceed towards (B), and at the end of the lesser latitude let another point be marked out with the letter (G), from which point, let there be drawn a perpendicular line which may fall with right Angles upon the former line drawn from (D) to (ε), and where it chanceth to fall, there mark out a point with the letter (H): This being performed let the greater latitude which is 51 degrees 32 minuts, be sought out in the semicircle beginning to reckon from (A) towards (B) and at the end of that latitude set another point signed out by the letter (I) from whence let there be drawn another perpendicular line that may fall with right angles upon the diameter (AC): & here mark out a point with the letter (K), this done take with your compass the distance betwixt (K) and (H) which distance you must set down upon the diameter (AC) placeing the one foot of your compass upon (K) and the other towards the center (D), and there mark out a point with the letter (L); then with your compass take the shorter perpendicular line (G H,) and apply that wideness upon the longer perpendicular line (I K,) placing the one foot of your compass at (I,) which is the bounds of the greater latitude, and extend the other towards (K), and there make a point at (M), then with your compass take the distance betwixt (L) and (M), and apply the same to the semicircle, Placing the one foot of your compass in (A) and the other towards (B), & there mark out a point with the letter (N), now the number of degrees comprehended betwixt (A) and (N) will express the true distance of the two places, which will be sound to be 39 degrees: which being multiplied by 60. and so converted into miles according to the former rules, will produce 2340. which is the distance of the said places.